Tag Archives: psychology

On Personal Dreams and Roadblocks

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My biggest dream is to be accepted to a prestigious graduate program in social, personality, positive, or educational psychology, to be successful as a doctoral student and to perform research that I’m passionate about, to discover my calling and do everything in my power to share and implement my insights and, in doing so, improve the lives of others. I want to find happiness and fulfillment through my work.

However, a huge obstacle lies right in the middle of my path. I’m continually overwhelmed by this paralyzing fear, a deep-seated insecurity about my ability to function successfully in the world. I hold the belief that from the safety of my own mind, I’ll be able to come to understand the functioning of everything that surrounds me, and eventually rejoin the real world with confidence in my understanding. Instead of propelling me forward, this skewed mindset causes me to shrink further and further from the people and opportunities that will actually help me get to where I’m headed. Rather than asking for help from the people who I know care, I tend to delve deeper into the dark corners of my own mind, searching for nonexistent answers.

Man is an animal suspended in webs of significance that he himself has spun.

-Clifford Geertz

I spend inordinate amounts of time collecting and developing ideas and skills that I believe might make me feel more confident and self-assured. I proudly carry around knowledge in my head, but become so engrossed in my own thoughts that I regularly neglect social relationships, and all the things that I should care about. I don’t tend to my real needs, and when problems arise, I run away and hide from them, hoping that maybe they’ll disappear or be forgotten. In my mind, I’ve created a false reality in which it feel simpler and safer to sacrifice the way things were for a scenario in which I start from scratch in an area in which I could potentially feel more competent, than face and work through my own flaws and shortcomings. In writing, it sounds foolish and ridiculous, but our mental schemas can be so powerfully convincing, despite their blatant inaccuracy.

Although, I personally pride myself in being a kind and moral person, those traits aren’t appreciated by society at large, and are often seen as supplemental fluff. Thus, I’ve built my identity around being intelligent, having ideas, and sharing my synthesis of knowledge, preferably through writing. However, the irony of the situation is that no matter what level of mastery I achieve in any given field or how successful I perceive myself to be, my fear of inadequacy never seems to go away. I can keep reading, thinking, and sharing ideas, but it will never be enough.

I may be cerebral, perceptive, innovative, insightful, curious, alert, and countless other positive things; however, at the other end of the spectrum, I’m often intense, detached, secretive, isolated, high-strung, preoccupied, reclusive, and unstable. Perhaps one day I’ll overturn conventional ways of thinking and put forth some innovative idea, but I feel that at this rate and on my current path, I’m more likely to become eccentric and socially isolated.

I feel more at home in my mind than in social situations; I feel safer viewing the world from a detached vantage point than taking part in the action. I believe it extends beyond mere introversion because I knowingly shut out opportunities for growth and learning. My thoughts are so overwhelming that the world within my head becomes intensely and conspicuously engrossing, to the point that little of outside world seems significant or satisfying. I’ll be the first to admit that I’m profoundly out of touch with reality, that my thinking is grossly convoluted,  and that my reactions and coping mechanisms are unhealthy.

When I become anxious and fearful, I’m reduced to an overwhelmed and severely immobilized being with little power to do anything. The comfortable environment I’ve created for myself suddenly transforms into an unpredictable and threatening beast; I cut back on social interactions in order to allay my fears, but that ultimately only feeds them. I’m sensitive to the world around me, acutely aware of my fragility and defenseless. In order to compensate for my environmental sensitivity, I put up a facade of apathy and intellectual arrogance, consciously, though unintentionally, creating distance between myself and others. I’m painfully uncomfortable with my social skills; though I feel as if when I do manage to make it past the initial hurdles, I more than capable of being a loyal and loving friend, the fear of failure often prevents me from putting forth even the smallest amount of effort.

I’ve recognized these traits in myself for years and have watched myself cycle in and out of the habit, growing more and more frustrated with my inability to overcome the tendency. As of late, a few brave souls have had the courage to call me out on my behavior. In paying attention to my reactions, I’ve noticed how I behave when I become overwhelmed. I shut off my social networks and my phone, and I pour all my time and energy into a singular, seemingly important and worthwhile project (which is currently graduate program research and applications). It’s a completely unhealthy and counterproductive way of coping, especially when there’s not even an obvious reason as to why I’m so anxious.

Death is not the biggest fear we have; our biggest fear is taking the risk to be alive.. the risk to be alive and express what we really are.

-Don Miguel Ruiz

Having developed my identity around knowledge and discovery, graduate school seems like the logical answer to overcoming my insecurities, sense of failure over having not secured a decent job a year after graduation, and my general lack of self-esteem lately; however, although I intend to continue the application process, that is not the solution. I think the key is to find a balance between acquiring knowledge and taking action, to let go of my pride and be willing to ask for help when I need it, to accept things as they are rather than worrying about and over-analyzing all those things which I can’t control. I need to start reminding myself that the best experiences come to those who aren’t afraid to get their feet wet, because I will never achieve a single one of my dreams if I’m too fearful to take the first step towards arriving there.

Painfully Shy: How to Overcome Social Anxiety and Reclaim Your Life

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Between my background in psychology and my personal experience with shyness, I have a keen interest in the common, yet socially shunned personality trait. In her book, Painfully Shy: How to Overcome Social Anxiety and Reclaim Your Life, Barbara Markway examines and dissects the issue of social anxiety, defined as the experience of apprehension or worry that arises from the possibility, either real or imagined, that one will be evaluated or judged in some manner by others.

The book answers common questions regarding the meaning and causes of social anxiety, and contains self-assessment tests and activities, as well as several helpful methods for overcoming social anxiety. In addition, there is a section on how to recognize and help your child overcome social anxiety. Finally, it concludes with an appendix of helpful terms and resources.

I found this book to be a fascinating look into a personality trait that is often seen as undesirable, and a hindrance to success. Combining scientific research and her own clinical experience, Markway offers an informed and understanding perspective on social anxiety and those who suffer from its overwhelming symptoms.

Some examples of practical exercises to overcome instances of social anxiety include paying attention to what the other person is saying, rather than focusing on how you look; and relaxing your mind and reminding yourself that you don’t have to be perfect, instead of worrying about what others are thinking about you. The section on methods for managing social anxiety is full of countless similar suggestions and tips.

As anyone who has dealt with shyness or social anxiety knows, it can be a real struggle. Throughout life, each of us is driven to consider the four existential concerns – death, freedom, isolation, and meaning. Although grappling with these complex issues does not guarantee answers, the questioning process in and of itself can help one transcend their small, everyday struggles, adding more fulfillment and joy into their life. By focusing on the big picture rather than each individual interaction, one can lessen the effects of social anxiety.

Whether you’re studying psychology, interested in the topic of personality, or suffer from painful levels of shyness and social anxiety or know someone who does, this book is a wonderful resource, presented in a helpful and easy to follow format.

I received a complimentary copy of this book in exchange for my honest opinion. 

Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking

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“It’s the quiet ones you have to watch out for…” 

I can’t begin to tell you how many times friends have playfully jested, insinuating that the silently observant individuals, like myself, innocently skirting the periphery are the ones secretly plotting some mischievous crime.

In her debut release, Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking, Susan Cain takes a different stand. Yes, you should be watching the quiet ones, but not because they’re creating a scene or causing trouble. Rather, Cain proposes that introverts – the conscientious, deep-thinking, thoughtful, individualistic, empathetic, shy, and often socially awkward individuals of society – hold a unique power in today’s world.

What they lack in charisma and quick-wit, they make up for in problem-solving abilities, determination, and their ability to focus. The time that an extrovert spends socializing is time that the introvert spends reading, delving passionately into their favorite hobby, having a deep conversation with another, and reflecting on life. The high school loner, when transplanted into a hospitable environment as an adult, has the ability to thrive and excel. Those who are happy living in their heads are the inventors, the artists, and the engineers, those innovators who are then able to release and project their internal paradise into their external world.

“The glory of the disposition that stops to consider stimuli rather than rushing to engage with them is its long association with intellectual and artistic achievement.” 

If these ungainly closet-geniuses have so much to offer the world, then why are they so often overlooked, and even shunned? Extroverts make up between one-half and two-thirds of the population, and we live in a society that has been built around, and increasingly caters to, and promotes that “extrovert ideal.” Assignments within both work and school environments often obit around collective collaboration, situations in which the intelligent but slow-to-speak introvert can’t get a word in edgewise. Employees may be accused of being uncooperative; spouses may be guilt-tripped for not responding properly to criticism; and students may be written up for not participating, in the traditional sense of the word. Is it possible that introversion and its associated traits are not necessarily negative and restrictive? Is it possible that these individuals are not, in fact, antisocial, but rather have a different perception of the world, and thus different means of interacting with others?

Cain explores the story of Rosa Park and her quiet strength during the Civil Rights Movement, as opposed to the charismatic and rallying power of Martin Luther King Jr. Both were important figures, in their own right. Placing the framework of this contrast into modern contexts, we imagine “connectors” – people who have a “special gift for bringing the world together” and “an instinctive and natural gift for making social connections” – to be charming and bubbly; yet, with the emergence of online communities and social media, introverted “connectors” have discovered a safe and comfortable environment in which they can interact with foreign friends, exchange ideas, empathize and offer advice, and ultimately serve to model a new form of leadership. As stated so aptly by Pete Cashmore, founder of Mashable, “perhaps social media affords us the control we lack in real life socializing: the screen as a barrier between us and the world.”

In a fast-talking, risk-taking society, why would evolution preserve a gene that discourages thoughtlessly jumping in and doing what needs to be done? Extroverts and introverts lie on polar opposites of the same spectrum – where one acts, the other thinks. Although it’s necessary to have members of a society who can fearlessly venture into the world and “hunt for dinner,” a community also depends on those who can notice a predator in the distance, or recall that a certain berry is poisonous. Ultimately, both personalities are important in the perpetuation of the human species.

So, as an introvert, what can you do to fit more comfortably into the world around you? What can you do to improve your relationships and help those around you understand that introversion is not a pathology? The underlying theme of Quiet is that introversion is not only okay, but a gift that, if properly harnessed and nurtured, can take you to places you never dreamt possible. The key is to find balance between your natural tendency towards introspection, and the social necessity to interact with others and act on ideas. Although horrified of small talk, most introverts revel in deep discussion – find other deep thinkers to exchange thoughts with. If you’re socially awkward, connect with like-minded people in online communities. Force yourself out of your comfort zone, but allow yourself to take baby steps to arrive there. When you feel over-stimulated, create “restorative niches,” in which you can unwind and find your center. Identify your core personal project – figure out what you loved as a child, the type of work you gravitate towards, and the lifestyles and people you envy – and pursue those passions relentlessly.

The book is built on meticulously researched data in the fields of personality, evolutionary, and neuropsychology, with additional support from case studies and one-on-one conversations. The author examines every facet of the life of an introvert, from school and work to interpersonal relationships. The book encapsulates every angle of the personality trait, as only a thoughtful and detail-oriented introvert could, taking into account and preemptively responding to any questions or challenges that may arise. I would highly recommend the book to anyone who considers themselves introvert or is the parent, spouse, or teacher of an introvert, as well as anyone with an interest in social or personality psychology. The book is informative, engaging, and highly relatable.

Now, savor your solitude, and go change the world.

I received a complimentary copy of this book in exchange for my honest review.

Psychology of Happiness: Part II

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I introduced how I became familiarized with positive psychology here. Now it’s your turn!

50% of happiness is determined by a set point (essentially genetics); 10% is determined by circumstance (cancer or a flat tire); and 40% by intentional activity (laughing or feeling gratitude). Happiness peaks at age 65. The original purpose of psychology was to make people’s lives better and happier; however, psychology came to be associate with mental illness. We all have signature strengths, which when developed contribute greatly to our well-being and happiness.

One of my favorite college courses was The Psychology of Happiness, in which the class read several fascinating books, had great discussions, and in which I took very thorough notes. I’d like to share some of the keys points to achieving a happy and fulfilling life, many of which make perfect sense if you think about them. These are the bare-bone basics and I have a plethora of knowledge on the subject, which I love sharing, so if you’d like to know more about any of the points or have specific questions, just ask and I’ll answer the best I can.

Things That Enable Happiness & Behavioral Patterns of Happy People:

  • Fit and healthy bodies / exercise regularly
  • Realistic goals and expectations / deeply committed to lifelong goals and ambitions
  • Positive self-esteem
  • Feeling of control
  • Optimistic / practice optimism when imagining their futures
  • Outgoingness
  • Supportive friendships that enable companionship and confiding / devote a great deal of time to family and friends / often the first to help others
  • A socially intimate, sexually warm, and equitable marriage (Cohabitation, however, has a negative effect on happiness)
  • Challenging work and active leisure, punctuated by adequate rest and retreat
  • A faith that entails communal support, purpose, acceptance, outward focus, and hope
  • Comfortable expressing gratitude for everything they have
  • Savor life’s pleasures and live in the present
  • Have stresses, but deal with them effectively

Some recommended books on the psychology of happiness:

The first three (*) are great introductions to the field of positive psychology and present the research and life-improvement techniques in an easy-to-understand and accessible way.

If anyone checks out any of these books (or already have), you’ll have to let me know what you think!

What’s Your Favorite Color?

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If you can’t tell from my the set up of my blog, my favorite colors are different shades of cyan (turquoise, teal, cerulean) and blue (royal, cobalt, sapphire). Looking back at pictures from this spring, graduation related events, and this summer, I’ve noticed an overwhelming amount of these colors, which makes me laugh.

So my interest in psychology goes back a while and although I’m now wholeheartedly committed to the hard science and research backing up psychology, I still find popular psychology to be fun and eerily accurate more often than not. Thus, I’m going to share a fun analysis: “What Your Favorite Color Says About You.”

White: Symbolic of purity, innocence and naivety, white has strong connotations of youth and purity. If you are an older person, your preference for white could indicate a desire for perfection and impossible  ideals, maybe an attempt to recapture lost youth and freshness. It may also symbolize a desire for simplicity or the simple life.

Red: The color of strength, health, and vitality, Red is often the color chosen by someone outgoing, aggressive, vigorous and impulsive – or someone who would like to be! It goes with an ambitious nature but  those who choose it can be abrupt at times, determined to get all they can out  of life, quick to judge people and take sides. Red people are usually optimistic and can’t stand monotony; they are rather restless and not at all introspective, so they may be unaware of their own shortcomings. They find it hard to be objective and may blame others for any mishaps. Quiet people with a preference  for red may feel the need for the warmth, strength and life-giving qualities of  the color, or they blanket their true feelings under a sober exterior. Red is usually chosen by people with open and uncomplicated natures, with a zest for life.

Maroon: Harsh experience has probably matured the Maroon person into someone likable and generous. It is often a favorite color of  someone who has been battered by life but has come through. It indicates a well-disciplined Red personality – one who has had difficult experiences and has  not come through unmarked but who has grown and matured in the process.

Pink: This color embodies the gentler qualities of Red, symbolizing love and affection without passion. Women who prefer Pink tend to be maternal. Pink desires protection, special treatment and a sheltered life. Pink people require affection and like to feel loved and secure, perhaps wanting to  appear delicate and fragile. Pink people tend to be charming and gentle, if a trifle indefinite.

Orange: This color of luxury and pleasure appeals to the  flamboyant and fun-loving person who likes a lively social round. Orange people may be inclined to dramatize a bit, and people notice them, but they are generally good-natured and popular. They can be a little fickle and vacillating, but on the whole they try hard to be agreeable. Orange is the color of youth, strength, fearlessness, curiosity and restlessness.

Yellow: The color of happiness, wisdom and imagination, Yellow is chosen by the mentally adventurous, searching for novelty and self-fulfillment. Yellow usually goes with a sunny and shrewd personality, with a good business head and a strong sense of humor. It is the color of  intellectuality and all things to do with the mind. Yellow folks are usually  clear and precise thinkers who have a good opinion of their own mental capacities and who have lofty ideals. They may at times tend to shun  responsibility, preferring freedom of thought and action.

Green: The color of harmony and balance, Green symbolizes hope, renewal and peace, and is usually liked by the gentle and sincere. Greens are generally frank, community-minded people, fairly sociable but preferring peace at any price. Green people can be too self-effacing, modest and patient, so they may get exploited by others. They are usually refined, civilized and reputable.

Turquoise: Complex, imaginative and original, Turquoise people drive themselves hard and may be in a state of turmoil under their outwardly cool exterior.

Blue: Soft, soothing, compassionate and caring, Blue is the color of deliberation and introspection, conservatism and duty. Patient, persevering, conscientious, sensitive and self-controlled, Blues like to be admired for their steady character and wisdom. They are faithful, but are often worriers with somewhat inflexible beliefs and can be too cautious, and suspicious of flamboyant behavior.

Blue-Green: Exacting, discriminating, poised and attractive, the Blue-Green person tends to be sensitive, intellectual and refined, persevering and stable if rather detached. Blue-Greens have excellent taste, and are usually courteous and charming, capable but often refusing help or guidance.

Lavender: This is often chosen by a person who lives “on a higher plane,” who never notices anything sordid and who is always impeccably  and beautifully dressed. Lavender people may be on a continual quest for culture and the refined things of life, high and noble causes but without the necessity of getting their hands dirty. A Lavender person is usually creative, charming, witty and civilized.

Purple: Purples are highly individual, fastidious, witty and sensitive, with a strong desire to be unique and different. Temperamental, expansive and artistic, a Purple person may become aloof and sarcastic when misunderstood. If you chose Purple, you tend to be unconventional, tolerant and dignified, likely to achieve positions of authority.

Brown: A Brown person has stamina and patience, tending to  be very solid and substantial, conscientious, dependable, steady and conservative. Browns are not impulsive, and may be inarticulate and tactless but  they love responsibility and are reliable and kindly. If you chose Brown, watch out for a tendency to be obstinate and inflexible.

Gray: The color of caution and compromise, diligent Grays  search for composure and peace and often work hard without reward. Older Grays like life to run on an even keel with few ups and downs. Young Grays may be withdrawing from life and suppressing their personalities. Grays often have good business ability and tend to work too much.

Black: Dignified and impressive without being showy, Black people want to give the appearance of mystery, but their preference may also indicate a suppression of desires and worldly aims, suggesting hidden depths and  inner longings.

Having studied psychology, I can tell you that these types of things are not recognized nor endorsed by the field or researchers, and (much like horoscopes) the trick is to list traits that could apply to just about anyone, which is why these types of tests generally seem to be so accurate. Regardless, I think that they’re fun and I think my personality matches both turquoise and blue very well (along with many of the other colors!).

What is your favorite color? How closely does your personality align with these predictions?

Source: http://www.care2.com/greenliving/favorite-color-personality.html#ixzz1S95aJVI8

EAR Modeling

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Throughout college, I worked in psychology research labs getting experience and building up a résumé for graduate school applications. During my last four semesters, I worked in the social psychology lab of Dr. Matthias Mehl. Much of the work we did involved the EAR (The Electronically Activated Recorder). The device records a participant periodically throughout the day to give a naturalistic account of their life. Research assistants, such as myself, then dissected and coded the recording to understand what was going on and discover correlations.

Dr. Mehl was asked to write a chapter in a social psychology textbook about Naturalistic Observation Sampling and the EAR. He wanted pictures to show how the device works, so yours truly is featured in a textbook that will be read (or at least purchased) by thousands of psychology students. Crazy! I wonder if I can mention this in my graduate school applications? (I’m on the left.)

The Happiness Project

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In college I took a course titled the Psychology of Happiness - one of my all-time favorite classes – and developed and an ever-growing interest in the field of Positive Psychology.

The Happiness Project: Or, Why I Spent a Year Trying to Sing in the Morning, Clean My Closets, Fight Right, Read Aristotle, and Generally Have More Fun is essential a layman’s guide to understanding and achieving happiness.

After realizing that “time is passing, and I’m not focusing enough on the things that really matter,” Gretchen Rubin seeks out current scientific research, the wisdom of the ages, and advice from popular culture in order to bring more happiness into her own life. She focuses on a different aspect of her life each month – vitality, family, work, leisure, money, attitude, etc. – and applies all the wisdom she has gathered to her efforts.

Although I’ve already read Seligman, Lyubomirsky, Csíkszentmihályi, Myers, Shimoff and other studies on happiness, conducted psychology research in the area, and am familiar with the findings presented, I am impressed by how the author adeptly compiled all the research and wisdom into an easy-to-understand and easy-to-follow guide.

Rubin is open about her experiences over the twelve months, shares her emotions, and wonderfully details her personal strides towards achieving happiness - both the failures and successes. The author is likeable, easy to relate to, and inspirational, which only builds the books merit. Through her charts, lists, and checklists, and blog, she physically and actively adheres to and documents her journey.

And at the end of the year, was she happier? Without and doubt, she claims. And based on my own studies in the area, I believe her. Many of the ideas are the same presented in any other self-help book, just from a different perspective.

Although I personal prefer the hard sciences, I am thrilled that someone has taken all the findings from the growing field of Positive Psychology and marketed them to the masses. I believe we could all benefit by crafting out own personal Happiness Project in which we pursue our passions, act with kindness, and take care of our bodies and our minds.

The Introvert Advantage

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Do you enjoy going out with different friends every night of the week or would prefer staying in and reading a good book? The former describes and extrovert  – someone who gains energy through spending time with others – and the later an introvert – an individual who recharges through time spent in solitude.

Contrary to popular belief, introverts are not shy, antisocial, nor aloof; rather, introverts are thoughtful and imaginative individuals who tend to work independently and think outside the box. In her book The Introvert Advantage: How to Thrive in an Extroverted World, Marti Laney proposes that introverts constitute a minority of the population (25%) who are often seen as socially awkward, rather than appreciated for their unique thought processes.

The book combines Dr. Laney’s clinical experiences, interviews with introverts, as well as scientific and physiological research to better understand why extroverts and introverts behave differently and how introverts can use this knowledge to their benefit. Although certain points in the book seemed contradictory, fluffed-up, and overly wordy, it was overall a very interesting and informative book to which I could relate.

Introverts are more likely to:

  • Keep energy inside, making it difficult for others to know them
  • Be absorbed in thought
  • Hesitate before speaking
  • Avoid crowds and seek quiet
  • Lose sight of what others are doing
  • Proceed cautiously in meeting people and participate only in selected activities
  • Not offer ideas freely; may need to be asked their opinion
  • Get agitated without enough time alone or undisturbed
  • Reflect and act in a careful way
  • Not show much facial expression or reaction

The book consisted of three main sections addressing what it is to be an introvert and how to identify one, what it is like to be an introvert in an extroverted world, and how to shape a happy and successful life around one’s introversion.

One of the most interesting points of the book was the difference between the body-brain circuits in introverts and extroverts. The introverted brain has a higher level of internal activity and thinking and is dominated by the long and slow acetylcholine pathway, which triggers the parasympathetic nervous system. On the other hand, the extroverted brain has less internal activity and scans to external world to gather stimulation to fuel the shorter and quicker dopamine pathway, which trigger the sympathetic nervous system.

The Introvert Advantage is a good read for anyone interested in the interworkings of the introvert brain, as well as how these internal circuits manifest themselves through an introvert’s behavior and interpersonal interaction.

The Moral Animal

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Though animals, like chimpanzees or dogs, human beings are different from every other species in that they have been equipped with a moral compass and drive to go above and beyond mere survival and reproduction.

In his book The Moral Animal: Why We Are the Way We Are: The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology, Robert Wright places the Darwinian theory of evolution within the framework of Charles Darwin’s own life and uses the father of modern biology’s life and disposition to exemplify his points.

The book is a well-informed and intelligently written overview of evolutionary psychology and an account of how the evolutionary process rules our everyday lives, often without our knowledge or consent. Evolution guides and influences every area of life, from love, romance, and sex, to family and kinship relations, to social structure, to internal and external conflicts. Although the individual goal may be personal success - such self-awareness, procreation, or legacy - this drive towards certain behaviors is driven by subconscious and biological forces favoring an enhanced human species via increased reproductive success.

“…humans are a species splendid in their array of moral equipment, tragic in their propensity to misuse it, and pathetic in their constitutional ignorance of the misuse.”

-Robert Wright

The first section of the book covers love, romance, and sex. Wright claims that the evolutionary goal of men is to produce as many viable offspring as possible; thus they seek young, healthy, and nurturing mothers to bear their children. Women, on the other hand, want to provide their children with all of the resources necessary for survival and success; thus women look for men with financial resources and prestige to father their children. In light of this dichotomy, Wright suggests that in evolutionary terms, the practice of polygamy would benefit women because a wealthy man could provide for several wives and multiple children. However, in this scenario men at the bottom of the ladder would be left without mates, which may lead to sexual tension and violence. Although biologically preferable, polygamy has been rejected in most societies due to the growing evolutionary importance of social relations.

The second portion of the book discusses sociality, kinship, reciprocal altruism, and emotions within social relations. Although in some respects the concept of “every man for himself” may seem a logical choice, evolution has steered us in the direction of helping others in need, in hopes that they will assist us later. Evolution favors the game theory strategy “tit-for-tat” in which those who perform positive behaviors are reciprocated, and those who perform negative behaviors are shunned. Darwinian evolution is not only maximizing the fitness of individuals, but also building a more supportive society through the development of emotions such as gratitude, obligation, guilt, and friendship.

The third section addresses status, hierarchy, and deception. Again, Wright argues that although humans want what’s best for themselves, the ultimate goal is advancing the race. Thus, those who are best suited for power take rule, while most everyone else voluntarily complies and trusts the higher ups. In order to promote their personal progress, some people may deceive others; self-deception is often implemented by the subconscious in order to make one’s arguments more believable.

The final portion of the book explores morality and utilitarianism. The topic of morality can be messy when looked at in relation to evolutionary psychology because it seems to go against what nature would intend – purely selfish behaviors. However this new perspective factors in our evolved instincts for survival as social beings, which entails helping others in order to help yourself.

The Moral Animal offers a fascinating glimpse into the growing field of evolutionary psychology, citing several studies and other researchers. If interested in the topic of evolutionary psychology and human behavior, I would highly recommend this book.